ENHANCING THE RESILIENCE OF RURAL COMMUNITIES TO CLIMATE CHANGE THROUGH COMPREHENSIVE CATCHMENT MANAGEMENT: A CASE STUDY OF GROUNDWATER-DEPENDENT COMMUNITIES IN TWO CATCHMENT AREAS OF SOUTH AFRICA

South Africa is characterised by a large rural populace who depend on various livelihood activities, subsistence farming, migrant labour, and state grants. Post-1994, decentralisation became government policy and ushered in wall-to-wall municipal authorities, with district and local municipalities mandated to assume responsibility for service delivery in their jurisdiction areas, including water and sanitation. As part of decentralising of water resource management Chapter 7 of the National Water Act (Act 36 of 1998) makes provision for the establishment of Catchment Management Agencies by the Minister of Water and Sanitation. These are legislated structures aimed at delegating water resource management to the regional or catchment level and to involve local communities, within the framework of the national water resource strategy established in terms of Chapter 2 of the same Act. South Africa is a water-stressed country currently facing several water challenges, including shortage of supply, degradation of ecological infrastructure responsible for water provision, poor landscape governance and water resource pollution. The situation is particularly challenging for rural municipalities. Due to substantial infrastructure backlogs, weak revenue bases and a landscape of scattered dwellings, many rural municipalities have difficulty supplying sustained water service to all their residents. Consequently, springs are a crucial resource for many households in rural communities across South Africa. The role of groundwater in South Africa has changed from an undervalued resource with a private water legal status to a source of domestic water and general livelihood to households in many villages and small towns country wide. Yet, groundwater is vulnerable to the impacts of climate change, which causes changes in hydrologic systems and the water cycle. While groundwater can be affected by non-climatic drivers, such as population growth and land-use change, those climatic changes lead to reduced groundwater recharge and increased demand for water. For many rural municipalities and communities, consideration of both climatic and non-climatic risks in groundwater management within specific catchments is vital. Catchments are universally recognised as appropriate units of management for Integrated Water Resource Management (IWRM). A catchment-based approach is used as it enables viewing sustained groundwater management as part of an integrated socio-ecological system to address water security challenges in rural areas. This approach also intentionally links ecosystems to people’s livelihoods and well-being, relying heavily on stakeholder engagement and participation to understand the range of society’s demands and pressures on natural resources. Against this backdrop, the aim of the research was five-fold, as highlighted below: i. The co-development of innovative strategies and frameworks to respond to climate-related changes in groundwater supply; ii. Strengthening decision-making support of governance structures and enhancement of the adaptive capacity of communities to climate-related changes in the water supply of springs; iii. Undertaking a review of the available information, tools and mechanisms for the protection, rehabilitation, and utilisation of springs in the selected communities; iv. Augmenting and updating existing maps and assessing the condition of commonly used springs across the two selected study areas; and v. Understanding the relevance of social-cultural behaviours, including feelings and perceptions that influence the dependence on and restoration of ecological infrastructure. This research adopted the view that expanding the adaptive capacity of policymakers, municipalities, and communities is fundamental to water security and sustainable livelihoods. Jones et al. (2010)’s socially-oriented framework was adopted to explore the adaptive capacity of rural communities to climate change through holistic catchment management. The framework was instructive in identifying critical elements that reflect a high adaptive capacity groundwater-dependent community of two catchments. The study focused on communal land tenure areas under the oKhahlamba Local Municipality in KwaZulu-Natal, and Matatiele Local Municipality in the Eastern Cape, particularly the rural communities at the foothill of the Drakensberg Mountain. Following ethical clearance from the University of KwaZulu Natal (Appendix F), this research, grounded in a constructivist approach, used various research instruments. The data collection processes involved conducting focal group discussions, administering questionnaires, online questionnaires, one-on-one interviews, and feedback from key stakeholders. Due to the project’s focus on both quantitative and qualitative outcomes, the data-gathering process was undertaken for geospatial and non-geospatial information, including spring location, type, condition, and the number of households dependent on the spring. Spatial information about the springs was extracted from existing hydrocensus databases obtained from the Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs) involved in spring protection and from Okhahlamba Local Municipality and uThukela District Municipality Hydrocensus data sets. In addition, a stakeholder mapping exercise was undertaken during the stakeholder engagement sessions. The stakeholder mapping aimed to develop a visual representation and understanding of the stakeholders, and their interest and influence in the management of springs. Lastly, the approach used to acquire information regarding the social-cultural behaviours and beliefs was through interactive group sessions during workshops and spring site visits where the community and other role players engaged on this subject. Specialist input from a Traditional Healer guided the appropriate communication methods that are culturally sensitive and do not undermine traditions and customs in the study area. i. Augmenting and updating existing maps and assessing the condition of commonly used springs across the two selected study areas Many rural households in the two study sites use springs as their primary source of water provision. The water is used for multiple purposes, including drinking, washing, livestock and cultural practices. Hydrocensus data revealed that there are correlations among the attributes relating to the spring location, type and nature, the springs’ condition, and how many households depend on springs for water supply. By visualising the spring location spatially, it was noted that most of the springs are situated in the headwaters of water-related features such as rivers and wetlands. ii. Undertaking a review of the available information, tools and mechanisms on the protection, rehabilitation, and utilisation of springs in the selected communities Stakeholder engagement workshops identified that natural resources management is one of the drivers of change in water security, affecting the quality and quantity of water from springs in the two catchments. In particular, the perceptions from the consultation workshops and online questionnaire survey in this research highlighted poor grazing practices, increase in invasive alien plants, and solid waste disposal around the springs as critical issues that need urgent attention. Community responses from the research concur with the DWS Protocol to Manage the Potential of Groundwater Contamination from Sanitation Practices (2003) that springs should be adequately protected and developed to prevent water contamination. However, there are no clear guidelines for implementing the Protocol at the community level. Currently, only 38% and 6% of springs are protected in the uMzimvubu and Thukela catchments respectively. The higher level of protection in the uMzimvubu catchment is driven mainly by Non-Government Organisations (NGOs) working closely with traditional authorities and the rural communities within which they work. On the other hand, the district municipality largely implements spring protection in the Thukela catchment. There was no definite correlation between spring protection and water quality. Findings suggest that there were more instances of unacceptable water quality than acceptable water quality from protected springs in the uMzimvubu catchment. In comparison, there were more instances of average to acceptable water quality than unacceptable water quality from unprotected springs in the Thukela Catchment. The highest incidence of unacceptable water quality was associated with unprotected springs in the uMzimvubu Catchment. The research was not conclusive on whether the state of spring protection guarantees good quality water in the study areas. It was also noted that the rudimentary nature of some of the spring protection measures makes them ineffective in preventing contamination from animal and household waste. iii. Strengthening decision-making Support of governance structures and enhancement of the adaptive capacity of communities to climate related changes in the water supply of springs The stakeholder mapping revealed a variety of role players in water provision. Various NGOs and research institutions fall under the interest group due to their contribution either through funding programmes or research projects associated with the management of springs. Government departments at national and provincial levels and municipalities fall under the decision makers categories as they make decisions through their decision-making roles and responsibilities associated with policies, strategies and plans that impact spring management. Local government is particularly critical in all aspects of catchment management, particularly in spring preservation. Yet, this research noted an absence of strategies for spring protection measures in municipal IDPs. The governance of springs as part of the landscape is only loosely incorporated into integrated municipal plans, if at all. As such, when spring protection structures are constructed, there are no clear rules of engagement or roles and responsibilities related to monitoring the infrastructure. Public participation in the governance of groundwater could ensure that clear norms, guidelines, and processes are in place for spring-dependent communities. There is a belief that local municipalities should serve as a focal point for developing sound groundwater management and spring protection activities. However, municipalities are constrained by a lack of human and financial resources and other sectoral departments’ contributions through intergovernmental arrangements. The participants expressed a need to involve political leaders since they can affect financial allocations. Both catchments have representation from traditional authorities who play an essential role in landscape governance in rural areas where the springs are generally located. To this end, traditional leadership institutions have the potential to either strengthen or undermine spring protection measures, thus recognising and including traditional leaders by constructively engaging with rather than marginalising them. iv. Evaluating the relevance of social-cultural behaviours, including feelings and perceptions that influence the dependence on and restoration of ecological infrastructure. The research established that springs in the two study sites have multiple uses beyond providing water for domestic use. Springs have extra significance because they also promote socio-cultural well-being and spirituality. Exploring spring protection strategies beyond safeguarding springs for household water consumption will be necessary to encourage the adaptive ability of rural communities in groundwater-dependent areas. The socio-cultural contribution of springs to rural communities should be considered in spring protection programs. African knowledge and belief systems on environmental sustainability could be revitalised and used broadly in environmental conservation and spring protection. A participatory approach to spring protection measures would ensure that socio-cultural aspects and beliefs are considered in managing and maintaining ecological infrastructure and protection of the springs. v. The co-development of innovative strategies and frameworks to respond to climate-related changes in groundwater supply The research drew on collaborative and learning-based engagements with key actors on responsive decision-making regarding the ability of communities to adapt to the effects of climate change on groundwater. Meetings with the stakeholders at study sites revealed that the vulnerabilities of groundwater-dependent communities are multi-faceted when it comes to the use of springs to meet the water supply needs of rural communities. Stakeholder engagements surfaced a range of innovative strategies to respond to groundwater management and spring protection. Quantitative and qualitative data monitoring of springs using available citizen science tools and effective information management should incorporate springs’ cultural and spiritual aspects. In this regard, awareness campaigns that involve community structures, traditional leaders, civil society structures, and local government will go a long way to cement innovative strategies that respond to changes in groundwater supply. i. Incorporating spring protection plans in municipal Integrated Development Plans (IDPs) will assist in formalising rural groundwater governance and ensure representative participation of ward committees in izimbizo, as well as the annual reviews of municipal IDPs. ii. Protecting springs and regularly monitoring their condition can be done through ongoing coordination and intergovernmental budgeting adopted in the IDP as part of the budgeting processes of municipalities. iii. Recognising and including traditional leaders and civic structures in the area and strengthening such partnerships is essential. iv. Maintaining and monitoring the quality of springs in line with municipal IDPs and in collaboration with traditional leaders is important. v. Capacity and awareness building, as well as training at the community level will significantly improve the springs’ quality and the preservation of infrastructure. vi. Capacity building for local and district municipalities will ensure that municipalities implement (i) to (iv) above. vii. Local NGOs with funding from abroad and from local municipalities have supported hydro censuses in the two catchments. While this forms a critical baseline database, we advise that more research be conducted to determine the microbiological and physico-chemical quality of spring water. viii. Recognising and supporting the NGOs involved in spring protection and awareness programmes is encouraged. ix. Municipalities and NGOs should consider the socio-cultural benefits of springs when designing spring protection programs. x. Adopting an integrated catchment management approach to invasive alien plant clearing and grazing management can contribute positively to improving groundwater quality and quantity. xi. Collaboration between municipalities, traditional leaders and civic structures is necessary to incorporate waste management for rural spaces into municipal IDPs. xii. Disseminating study findings in user-friendly formats would be beneficial for sharing relevant research components.

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• Spring4Life Journal published in Volumes 4 No. 2 (2024) of the International Journal of Educational Review, Law And Social Sciences |IJERLAS